Dr Hu began his lecture with the heights of his career- the two times when he won the Ignobel Prize for studying how animals pee, and another one for studying the cubic feces of wombats. He recounted a 5/25/2016 Fox and Friends story about his 'wasteful' studies and his call-out by Jeff Flake, who accused him of being responsible for 15% of the nation's most wasteful studies (his study about how many times a dog needs to shake to get rid of moisture actually has a bearing on applying medication to the scalp).
Dr Hu then joked about how he was admitted to MIT by mistake, then began the lecture with a video of water striders, which use hairs on their legs to repel water in order to walk on the surface. Dr Hu noted the beauty of fluid mechanics, showing a picture of a water strider walking on dyed water, and kicking up vortices. Wataer striders use their legs as oars which sweep across the miniscus of water.
Dr Hu then displayed a video of a basilisk lizard running across a body of water- its legs form an air cavity that it slaps against.
If a human wants to run on water like a basilisk, it would need trashcan lid sized feet and legs fifteen times as strong. To emulate a water strider, the feet would have to have a 10 kilometer perimeter.
Dr Hu noted that water strider emulating robots could search for oil slicks on the water.
Dr Hu decided to study cats because they are 'champion animals'. Besides being champion sleepers, cats are super clean. Their tongues are covered with spikes (feliform papillae), which are used for grooming. Each papilla has a concavity which uses capillary action to fill itself with saliva, a natural detergent. The concavity in the papilla matches the hair. Cats use about three teaspoons of saliva each day for grooming, and use saliva to keep cool, in lieu of sweat. Dr Hu patented a cat tongue inspired hairbrush. He joked about cats' ability to form hairballs to deposit wherever they wish.
Dr Hu then went on to discuss dogs- nobody had studied the drying shake of a dog, whcih starts at the head and travels back. Shedding water is a matter of life or death- a forty pound Labrador would retain about a pound of water after a dip. Fur evolved to keep animals warm and dry, so they need to be able to dry off. Mice, as well as dogs, shake. A rat closes its eyes before shaking because it produces about 20G with the shake. Why can't humans shake dry? Dogs have an adaptation, they have loose skin which can move under the centripetal forces produced with shaking.
Having shown us enough cute mammals, Dr Hu focused on fire ants- ants are discete, but flow and coalesce like liquids. Not too far from the Georgia Tech campus, fire ants can be collected. In the lab, they put ants in buckets of water to demonstrate rafting behavior. The ants adhere to each other and form a water repellent mass with air pockets.
The ants with coalesce to form a solid monolayer when there are many ants. and their structure is elastic. They link and delink to react to the environmental conditions. These models can be the basis of swarm robotz which could, for instance, build bridges.
Dr Hu then shifted to a scatalogical vein. While he was changing his children's diapers, he decided to measure how long it taakes animals to urinate. Small animals don't have the mass to produce enough pressure to form a stream, and form droplets. Baby rats need their mothers to lick their urine from their urethra. He then showed a remarkable video of an elephant urinating and defecating simultaneously. An elephant has a bladder which can hold up to twenty gallons of urine, but most animals take an average of about twenty-one seconds to empty a bladder. Torricelli's Law relates the speed of fluid flowing from an orifice to height of the fluid column above it. The study of the duration of urination is important because it can be used to calibrate artificial collegen urethrae for medical patients.
The lecture ended with cuboidal scat, which necessitated a trip to Australia, where he collaborated with wombat expert Dr Scott Carver. Because wombats are burrowers, their pouches face towards the back, so the joeys get pooped on. Wombats defecate in latrines, usually raised areas. Why does the bare-nosed wombat produce cubic poop? They probably use their poop as area markers to delinate their home ranges, building 'cairns' of poop. Wombats do noHy ahowed a CT scan of a wombat poophole. He showed a slide of a roadkilled womba, noting the ten meter long large intestine, sliced open to show how a fecal slurry has moisture removed until a dry fecal cube is formed. He compared the shaping of wombat poop to the fomation of the Giant's Causeway as rock cooled. Wombat intestines have stiff sections (four to one in proportion to soft sections) which contract quickly, forming the corners of a fecal poop cube.
The lecture was followed with a Q&A session. Regarding funding, Dr Hu opined that he thinks biology is in trouble, with the ongoing extinction event and increased interest in human diseases. There are more tigers in captivity than in the wild, elephants may go extinct in our lifetime... he have a lot to learn, but little time. Regarding his kerfuffle with Flake, he urged scientists to fight back. He responded in Scientific American and Flake caved, asking Dr Hu to find the real wasteful spending. Dr Hu declined the offer. The funding for attacks on science continues, though. Why don't cats get sick more often when they swallow dirt? Dr Hu noted that the alimentary canal is one tube from mouth to anus. Stuff such as ticks gets digested, they clean their butts with their tongues, and are okay... if people did that, they'd probably get sick. Asked about robots based on biomimicry, Dr Hu noted that animals are the only models to base water walking or rubble crawling robots. Dr Hu has upcoming research regarding earwax, which probably has insect-thwarting properties.
Dr Hu delivered an informative, funny lecture, with a bit of political snark and a heaping dose of advocacy. He's a very engaging speaker. Kudos to him, and to Margaret and Dorian. For a taste of the Secret Science Club experience, here's a video by the Good Doctor:
Pour yourself a nice beverage and soak in that SCIENCE!!!
I've been periodically checking in on the progress of Hurricane Florence, and I am reminded of 2011's Hurricane Irene and 2012's Superstorm Sandy. Florence, like Irene, is a slow moving rain machine- while 'only' a category one hurricane at landfall, the main damage will be due to storm surge, largely an effect of the storm's 500 mile (800 kilometer) diameter, and the flooding rainfall. Here in the Northeast, Superstorm Sandy's destructive effects were due to storm surge while Irene wreaked havoc in New England due to its slow pace and heavy rains. Florence looks like it'll hit the Carolinas with a combination of both.
To compound the dangers of flooding, North Carolina is infamous for its pig manure lagoons which, if flooding causes them to overtop their 'banks', will contaminate rivers and groundwater before the fecal flood pollutes the coastal waters, possibly causing algal blooms and sea life die-off. Even worse than the pigshit is the coal ash from power plants, which contains heavy metals, which are even worse than fecal coliforms. I'm of the opinion that a 'war on coal' is a good thing, but I'm one of those 'nanny state' regulation junkies.
At any rate, I have a suspicion that Florence will be another unmitigated disaster, partly due to Trumpian incompetence, partly due to rapacious disaster capitalism.
Last night, I headed down to the beautiful Bell House in the Gowanus section of Brooklyn, for the latest Secret Science Club lecture. This month's lecture featured the triumphant return of NYU microbiologist Dr Martin Blaser. As you may recall, Dr Blaser's last lecture focused on the bacteria which live inside the human gut, with a special spotlight on the H. pylori bacterium, which is endemic to the human stomach. This month's lecture was a companion piece to Dr Blaser's new book, Missing Microbes:How the Overuse of Antibiotics Is Fueling Our Modern Plagues.
Dr Blaser began his lecture with a discussion of the conundrum of early life antibiotic exposure. Each and every human being on the planet has a plethora of microbial symbionts. These symbionts are ancient- all animal lineages have them, which is evidence for such symbiotic relationships having existed among the first animals to evolve. These symbionts are "niche"- different microbes thrive in different regions of the body, with oral bacteria differing dramatically from gut bacteria, skin bacteria, and urogenital bacteria. These symbionts are persistent and conserved- after infancy, an individual's interior biome becomes remarkably stable throughout one's life. Finally, these symbionts are host-specific. Each individual has a unique microbiome. Humans harbor more bacterial cells in their bodies than "human" cells. 70-80 percent of the cells present in and on the human body are microbes. Even more dramatically, 99 percent of the genes present in the human body are microbial genes.
Dr Blaser then discussed the effects of microbial symbionts during pregnancy. Throughout pregnancy, the microbiome changes. In a study of germ-free mice introduced to bacteria taken from the gastrointestinal tracts of women in the third trimester of pregnancy, the mice gained weight and exhibited "diabetic" traits. The gut bacteria of pregnant individuals seems to "mobilize" calories in such a manner to benefit the developing fetus. The bacterial symbionts have co-evolved with the host... such coevolution can been likened to a dialogue between the host and its microbes. One of Dr Blasers main areas of inquiry is what happens when this relationship is perturbed.
A disappearing microbiota results in a changing human ecology- altered microbe composition affects physiology. The early microbiome affects development, with early antibiotic exposure correlating with the incidence of obesity. The geography of obesity and the geography of antibiotic use correlates in a very suggestive manner. It has long been known that subtherapeutic use of antibiotics will promote growth in farm animals. The earlier in life this antibiotic use occurs, the more efficient its results.
Studies indicated that the subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment (STAT) will result in greater muscle mass. Add fat to STAT, and the antibiotics pontentiate fat gain. A study was performed to determine if increased adiposity was durable with limited antibiotic exposure- administration of antibiotics for four weeks was sufficient to cause long-term adiposity. In subjects exposed to antibiotics from birth, the weight gain was more pronounced. Mice exposed to early antibiotic "treatments" down-regulated their immune systems. With time, the "fecal community" of microbes can revert to normal after the cessation of antibiotic exposure, but the effects on body mass are permanent. Antibiotic exposure need not be persistent- "pulse" doses of antibiotics are sufficient to affect immunity.
During development, an organism's stem cells receive signals from its microbial symbionts. In early life, there is a more diverse microbiome, which tends to stabilize as one grows into adulthood. One antibiotic dose can decrese microbial biodiversity, which can alter development. It is estimated that the population in the U.S. has lost 20% of its microbial biodiversity- antibacterial activities have "collateral damage".
Dr Blaser enumerated a plan to address the diminishing microbial biodiversity. Research about the consequences of overuse of antibiotics has to continue. Education about the risks of antibiotic overuse needs to proceed. The development of narrow-spectrum antibiotics which target deleterious microbes while doing minimal damage to helpful symbionts needs to be prioritized. Remediation of damaged internal biomes with probiotics needs to be promoted, with the reversal of the loss of biodiversity the end goal. Finally, the recovery of "lost" microbes needs to be investigated.
Once again, Dr Blaser delivered a thought-provoking lecture on a topic which has far-ranging implications on human health. In the Q&A session, he went into more depth on such subjects as fecal transplants. Some bastard in the audience asked about the implications of antibiotic overuse on autoimmune maladies. Dr Blaser indicated that a diminished internal biome has been implicated in some forms of asthma, and there are now studies concerning the role of a diminished microbiome in type one diabetes.
To get a taste of Dr Blaser's congenial lecturing style, here is the man himself being interviewed on The Daily Show:
Needless to say, last night's lecture was yet another phenomenal presentation of the Secret Science Club. Here's a tip of the hat and a heartfelt thank-you to Dorian, Margaret, and the staff of the beautiful Bell House.
EDIT: Holy cats, I left out a crucial part of the lecture, having been rushed when I was composing this post. One of the most important items was a timeline of antibiotic development- as microbes evolved resistance to antibiotics (it's a simple matter of evolution- any bacteria not killed by an antibiotic will reproduce, and their descendents will be resistant). New antibiotics have been developed to counter microbial resistance, and the microbes would develop resistance to the new antibiotics. We are now at a stage where there are multiple-resistant strains of various microbes, with MRSA being a particularly pernicious example. Sorry about this lapse, folks!
PREFACE: The mad geniuses at Riddled are often yukking it up about twin studies, so I figured I'd give them a shoutout before writing the bulk of this post...
Last night, I headed down to the beautiful Bell House, in the Gowanus section of Brooklyn, for this month's Secret Science Club lecture. This month's lecture marked the triumphant return of Dr Christopher Mason, associate professor of physiology & biophysics and computational biomedicine at Weill Cornell Medical College, member of the Yale Law School Information Society Project, and director of the WorldQuant Initiative for Quantitative Prediction. Dr Mason's previous lecture concerned his famous 'subway swabbing' project.
The topic of Dr Mason's lecture was 'Subterranean, Pan-Earth, and Inter-Planetary Genomics'... Dr Mason quipped that he is a fan of preposterous talk titles. The broad topic of the lecture involved a study to determine what the human body looks like in space. He displayed NASA's dramatic graphic showing their plans to put boots on Mars by 2035:
Dr Mason then showed the image of the SpaceX Tesla roadster, which is predicted to settle into an orbit just outside the orbit of Mars. He called attention to the library inside the Tesla, and informed us that the creation of a lunar library is scheduled for 2020, with a Mars library to follow in 2030. Dr Mason then mused, "What if it were a human body in that car?" What would the effects of space travel be on that human body. He noted that mutations can change a normal cell to a tumor cell, and that genetic mosaicism increases with age- specifically that cells can shed X chromosomes. He described an 'inexorable molecular march to oblivion'- mutations increase with age, telomeres shrink... the genetic 'bookends' fall away. He posed the question, 'how long can the body survive the slings and arrows of space?' Overall, mortality among astronauts has been significantly higher than for the general public- Dr Mason noted that space travel is not for the sheepish.
The Kelly twin study involved a lot of blood testing, and Dr Mason illustrated the complications of astrophlebotomy by showing a video of Japanese astronaut Koichi Wakata drawing blood on the ISS:
After blood is drawn, it is centrifuged and the blood cells are frozen, the frozen cells being sent back on a Soyuz capsule, touching down in Kazakhstan.
After 340 days, Scott Kelly made it back to the Earth, and the stress of space travel was immediately apparent- his post-flight cognition was slightly impaired and his cytokines had shifted. Unused to clothing touching his skin, anything that touched his skin caused a burning sensation. He wanted to wander around naked- Dr Mason joked that that was like a typical Saturday for him.
Genetically, mutations and structural variations had occured. DNA methylation and DNA hydroxymethylation had occurred, as had RNA methylation. Scott Kelly's genome wasn't exactly the same as it had been- for example, the length of his telomeres had increased while he was in orbit, then shrank while he was back on Earth. The press coverage of the study was sensationalized and less-than-accurate- one headline screamed 'Space Made Scott Kelly Taller and Younger'. Dr Mason dryly noted that, due to time dilation, Scott Kelly was, relativistically, .1 second younger than he would have been if he'd stayed on the Earth.
Love level DNA transcription inversions were apparent, and some genetic damage persisted after Scott Kelly had returned to Earth. There was an increase of cell-free DNA in his bloodstream... as cells underwent apoptosis, the cell-free (extrasomatic) DNA was released into the blood. In particular, there was a spike of mitochondrial DNA in his blood. It was also apparent that his white blood cells had launched DNA into his blood to fight invaders. In the absence of gravitational forces, fluids shift around in the body, causing, among other things, facial puffiness.
Dr Mason then shifted the topic of the lecture to epigenetics. The ACGT genome is really just the beginning of gene expression- epigenetic factors control when and where genes are activated.
In one case of epigenetics, DNA methylation can predict an individual's age, which has great forensic utility. Dr Mason joked that YOLOIDs is now obsoletel because now bouncers can sequence a patron's DNA to check their age. Besides age, there are other reasons for epigenetic shifts- in the case of Scott Kelly, the epigenetic age was dynamic, early in the mission it appeared lower, mid-mission it appeared higher, then it appeared lower after he landed. In the three to six month range, there were 6,976 changes in gene expression. In the 6-12 month range, the amount of changes was seven times higher. 93% of the gene expression returned to normal when he landed, but 7% did not- a phenomenon promptly dubbed 'space genes'. The 'space genes' were disrupted by space flight, but Dr Mason noted that permanent genetic change only occurs when a subject is dead.
In response to the dramatic reports that 7% of his DNA had changed, Scott Kelly joked that he didn't have to call Mark his twin brother anymore. Even The Daily Show had a segment on Space Genes. NASA stepped in to set the record straight, noting that Scott and Mark Kelly are still identical twins, and that if 7% of Scott Kelly's DNA had changed, he'd have to be considered a different species. Dr Mason described this overly sensational media coverage and the subsequent scientific correction as 'a good teachable moment'.
Dr Mason then cataloged the factors which may have caused the changes in Scott Kelly's genetic expression- hypoxia, hyperemia, immune system responses, DNA repair, and disruptions to bone formation. In the ISS, carbon dioxide levels fluctuate. High levels of mitochondrial DNA in Scott Kelly's blood were thought to come from platelets and white blood cells, indicating a response to stress.
Dr Mason went on to discuss changes to Scott Kelly's microbiome- there are more than just human cells in the human body. In space, microbial diversity was largely maintained, but there was a slight shift in the Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio. Dr Mason noted that it was hard to collect fecal samples in space, but refrained from describing the process. He noted that fecal and oral samples allowed researchers to determine what Scott Kelly had been eating, noting that the DNA of vegetable matter tends to survive in poop. At one point, it was suggested that Mark Kelly maintain a similar diet to synch up with his brother Scott, but he refused to do so... there aren't any 5-star restaurants in space.
The genetic study of Scott Kelly marked the first 'cartography' of a body in space, but more samples are needed, a problem compounded by the fact that there are only 556 total subjects- there just aren't many astronauts out there. Questions remain- are the patterns of changes linear, quadratic, or exponential? One potential advance is the sequencing of DNA in space- at $10K/kilogram for sending stuff into orbit, nanosequencers would make this feasible. Dr Mason joked that the first order of business was producing a Biomolecule Sequencer patch:
To lighten the mood after that bummer, Dr Mason showed us a funny video of researcher Andy Feinberg attempting to microgravity pipetting on the 'Vomit Comet':
Eventually, a commercial DNA sequencer, MinION, was used by astronaut/microbiologist Kate Rubins to sequence DNA in space for the first time, a feath that Dr Mason described as a game-changer. A billion genes have been sequenced in space susequently, notably a sequence of E. coli's genome. Now, new infections in the ISS can be sequenced in real-time.
Dr Mason then posed the question- where else can sequencing take place? The Gowanus Canal? The subway? This was a perfect segue into the topic of his grand subway swab. He began with a great aphorism: In the absence of knowledge, the best thing is to discover. His goal was to conduct a Metropolitan Genome Project, an exploration of the metropolibiome, if you will. In the course of the subway swab, fifty percent of the DNA recovered had never been seen before- half of the world under our fingertips is unknown. He joked that, from a biological standpoint, a subway railing should be as inspiring as a rainforest. The species diversity varies by area of the city, with one particularly interesting locale being the South Ferry subway station, which had been flooded by Superstorm Sandy. Post-Sandy, the South Ferry station has exhibited a persistent molecular echo of cold ocean water. One particular organism, Shewanella frigidmarina, which was located there can produce eicosapentaenoic acid, the consumption of which may reduce suicide rates. Dr Mason seems to be particularly plagued by sensational media responses to his research- the Gothamist headline about his subway genome project read: Licking Subway Poles "Probably Fine," Says Expert. The hygiene hypothesis posits that bacterial exposure early in childhood is important in immune system function. Dr Mason then introduced us to the work of Heather Dewey-Hagborg, an artist who uses DNA from discarded cigarette butts and chewing gum to create 3d images of faces WHICH IS NOT CREEPY AT ALL!!!
In another project, 2010 Census data was campared to humans' molecular echoes, to determine if neighborhoods could be distinguished using DNA samples. Regarding privacy, an individual can choose, to some extent, what DNA they leave behind... at any rate, one should not avoid riding the subway out of privacy concerns. Dr Mason then showed images of the early morning subway cleanings, comparing these daily events to forest fires, with the subsequent press of commuters representing a 'reseeding'.
The Metasub project is a multi-city transit system metagenome project- once a year, multiple subway systems throughout the world will be swabbed for genetic material to sequence. The next big swabbing project will take place on June 21 of this year.
Other topics are ripe for research... Where does antibiotic resistance arise? Can an engineering approach be brought to medicine? Can we tweak something and predict what will happen if engineering occurs? Pigs could be genetically engineered to grow human organs. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy repair can be performed in fetuses. Fragile X syndrome can be repaired. Using genetic engineering, how can astronauts be 'armored'? Could TP53 be enhanced to guard their DNA? What about the prospects of adding chloroplasts to human cells to allow photosynthesis? In that case, a surface area of two tennis courts would be needed to replace one hour's worth metabolic needs fueled by eating. Dr Mason characterized the prospects of such research both terrifying and exciting- there is a real chance that NASA could meet its precision medicine goals, but what if we do something wrong?
The lecture was followed by a Q&A session, led off by some bastard in the audience asking if there had been genetic surveys of people who have spent large amounts of time in underwater environs. Dr Mason indicated that there haven't been any genetic testing of SCUBA enthusiasts, but that there is currently a twin study of mountaineers who are tackling Everest. Another question regarded the percentage of subway microbes which are pathogenic- about 98% of subway microbes are not pathogens, but Dr Mason wryly noted that some of the microbes in the subway could kill you if you were a lobster. If the subway were swarming with pathogens, we all would have died already. That being said, there is a danger from aerosolized particles- it's best to avoid red-eyed, sneezing people. The odds of getting sick from subway exposure are low.
Regarding twin studies, Dr Mason joked, "I wish you all had a twin." He noted that the fact that the Kelly brothers the only twin astronauts, and that even then they had both been in space, so Mark wasn't a perfect 'control', even though Scott's time in space was orders of magnitude longer.
Another question regarded telomere elongation- one proposed mechanism is that enzymes regulating telomere length become more active. In cancer cells, telomeres tend to be too long.
The last question of the night was hilarious, a real doozy: "Given a CRISPR and no ethical qualms, how would you engineer the perfect spacer?" Dr Mason suggested that smaller size would be beneficial, as would cancer repair, photosynthetic enhancement, and a tweak to the LRP5 gene to maintain bone density. He then noted that, like Dr Moreau, geneticists in popular fiction are usually depicted as evil, he then flatly stated, "We're not evil." Yeah, you're not evil, in fact you're awesome!
Kudos to Dr Mason for another fantastic lecture, a heady blend of molecular biology, outer space adventure, dry wit, and a cautionary note about sensationalistic science reporting in the popular media. Once again, Dr Mason hit one out of the park. Special thanks to Margaret and Dorian, and the staff of the beautiful Bell House as well. High fives all around.
Now, here's a video of Dr Mason delivering a TED talk about genetics, epigenetics and the Kelly twin study:
Pour yourself a beverage and soak in that science!
Last night, I headed down to the beautiful Bell House in the Gowanus section of Brooklyn for this month's Secret Science Club lecture by Dr. Martin Blaser, director of NYU’s Human Microbiome Program. Dr Blaser's title for the lecture was: "While Babies Sleep and Dream, their Microbiome Never Rests"- a very sweet, poetic title.
After a brief overview of the topics he would cover, Dr Blaser opened his lecture with a slide of the changes in the Greenland ice sheets due to global warming. Just as global warming is a change in the macroenvironment, there are changes occurring in the microenvironment inside our bodies.
The lecture then proceeded to the topic of the three "Kingdoms" of life, the Bacteria, the Archaea, and the Eukarya. To put our place in the scheme of things into perspective, Dr Blaser showed a slide of the "Tree of Life" and informed us that, in comparison to the distantly related bacteria Escherichia coli and Clostridium sp., humans can count as close relatives corn and fungi.
The microbiome is ancient, niche-specific, persistent, conserved, and host specific. Ever since animals evolved, they have had microbial symbionts. In a typical human body, there are 23,000 "human" genes present, and 8 million microbial genes. Put bluntly, 99% of the genes present in your body are bacterial. Different sites around the human body have different microbial populations. The diversity of an individual's microbiomes levels out with age, with the "adult" microbiome typically being established by the age of three. The host and the symbiotic microbes co-evolve- host and symbiont send "signals" to each other.
H. pylori has been implicated in gastric cancer as well as stomach and duodenal ulcers. Men with H. pylori are more likely to develop stomach cancer than men without H. pylori. As H. pylori disappears, the incidence of gastric cancer has decreased. There's a downside, though- as H. pylori disappears, the incidence of gastric "reflux" and esophageal adenocarcinoma has increased. Reflux, which makes esophageal cancer more prevalent, was rare in the 1930s, but the incidence has been increasing with the wane of H. pylori. H. pylori is bad for the stomach, but good for the esophagus. As Dr Blaser bluntly put it, you can't win.
The next topic of the lecture involved other health effects of H. pylori. The stomach produces the hormone ghrelin, which stimulates appetite. H. pylori affects ghrelin levels. Ghrelin levels are typically high in the morning, which triggers hunger, and decrease as one is satiated. If H. pylori is eradicated, ghrelin levels tend to remain high. The elimination of H. pylori has also been implicated in increased asthma rates and may play a role in the increased incidence of food allergies. In children under fifteen, there is an inverse association between asthma and the presence of H. pylori, but there is no such association in children over the age of fifteen. Asthma rates tend to rise with courses of antibiotics administered to infants- early H. pylori infection could possibly prevent asthma. Wheezing is caused by metacholine. H. pylori makes wheezing less prevalent in infants. the bacteria in the stomach protect the lungs. H. pylori can also cause increased skin sensitization. The disappearance of H. pylori may be related to T-cell depletion and increased gastric acidity. H. pylori is good for the upper regions of the gastrointestinal tract and bad for the lower reaches of the GI tract. It's good for us early in life, but bad for us later in life. Once again, you can't win.
The next topic of the lecture was an overview of the disappearing microbiota hypothesis. A changing human ecology since the 19th century has affected the transmission and maintenance of the indigenous microbiota, and the microorganismal composition changes have an effect on health. Since the 19th century, each generation of mothers has passed fewer microbes to its children. In a cross-cultural study, the diversity of microbiota in the U.S. has been found to be lower than that in the Malawian and South American indigenous populations.
One major factor in the transmission of microbiota is the method of birth. Mothers pass their microbiota to their children through the birthing process (vaginal birth transfers a more diverse microbiota than birth by Caesarian section), through the mastication of food for their infants, through nursing, and through skin contact.
Dr Blaser then went on a slight tangent about the overuse of antimicrobials, and injected a moment of bizarre hilarity by showing an ad for an antimicrobial stapler (as an aside, I wonder if that's why Milton was so upset at losing his red Swingline). He emphatically stated that less bacteria do not equal better health.
The "antimicrobials" discussion turned to the use of antibiotics. Out of the top eight prescriptions given to children, five are for antibiotics. 41 million courses of antibiotics are administered to children yearly. This may be a factor in the rise of obesity throughout the developing world for the last thirty years. The administration of low doses of antibiotics (STAT: sub-therapeutic antibiotic treatment) promotes growth in farm animals. The earlier the antibiotics are applied, the greater the increase in growth. Studies involving mice showed no difference in weight between mice given "STAT", but the mice given antibiotics had a greater fat mass. Not only does STAT create a greater fat mass, but it also changes the host's microbiota. The microbiota change precedes the development of obesity. Liver adiposity also increases with STAT. STAT also affects lipid metabolic processes and fatty acid metabolism. The antibiotics change the composition of microbiota through Natural Selection (microbes not killed by the antibiotics proliferate when "weaker" microbes die off) The application of antibiotics also decreases the activation of the immune system's T-cells, and changes genes which regulate obesity in early life.
Besides STAT, sub-therapeutic antibiotic treatment, studies were made of PAT, pulse antibiotic therapy, the administration of antibiotics as if an infection were being treated. In these studies, it was found that three "pulses" of antibiotics were sufficient to accelerate weight gain and resulted in bigger bones with a higher mineral content. It's possible that PAT could be resulting in increases in average height.
The administration of antibiotics reduces the diversity of microbiota- with each "pulse" there is a permanent reduction in microbiota species. If an ecosystem is perturbed once, it can recover, additional perturbations cause permanent change. Perturbed equilibrium changes all "pathways" in an ecosystem. This has an implication in the development of stem cells because microbiota create a context for development. By perturbing microbiota, we could be changing metabolic, cognitive, and developmental processes. A changing microbiota also has allergic and autimmune implications- a rise in allergies and autoimmune disorders could be "collateral damage" resulting from changing microbiota.
In the Q&A session, some bastard in the audience asked Dr Blaser if the various "probiotics" on the market were of any value. He indicated that most of the probiotics on the shelf were more triumphs of marketing rather than paragons of therapeutic value. He also asserted that more narrow spectrum antibiotics were needed to prevent large scale disruptions of microbiota. In a response to a question about Fecal Transplant Therapy, he indicated that the clinical trial showed that fecal transplants are useful in treating persistent Clostridium difficile infections. As an aside, I think I could become a regular POOP donor... I'm full of the stuff! Diet can change the microbiome somewhat, but the fundamental (heh heh) "fingerprint" of the microbiome doesn't change much.
Once again, this was a top-notch lecture in a top-flight series. It was also an appropriate lecture for the Valentine's Day season, because it was a celebration of the fact that no-one is alone, ever. So... love the little buddies who travel with you wherever you go. Special thanks to Dr Blaser, Secret Science Goddesses Dorian Devins and Margaret Mittelbach, and the staff of the beautiful Bell House. They are even better than my beloved gut-buddies, and I never have to worry about them giving me ulcers.
POSTSCRIPT: Me being me, I couldn't finish this post without putting up the video for Germfree Adolescents by the late great Poly Styrene and the X-Ray Spex:
Dr Mason began his lecture by stating that he was obsessed with sequencing DNA, the molecular "recipe" present from an individual's first cells. He described development as a symphony of DNA, RNA, and proteins, a combination of processes that occur at all times.
The last ten years of microbiology have been revolutionary. To illustrate the growth of processing power in the field of genome tracking, Dr Mason brought up Moore's Law and noted that the reduction in the cost of gene sequencing has vastly outpaced the general pace of technological development. In the period from 2006-2007, the cost to sequence a genome was cut in half every five months. This reduction in cost has led to "participatory genomics", embodied by such websites as "Patients Like Me", a social media site on which individuals can share genetic data. Genome guided medicine has arrived- medicines can be tailored to a patient's genetic profile. Dr Mason noted that more data equals more power, and that organizations such as Genspace are bringing microbiology to a wider audience. One of Genspace's projects is a study of the microbiome of the ultra-polluted Gowanus Canal, mere blocks from the beautiful Bell House. Dr Mason mentioned two genes that have a great effect on the health of an individual possessing them: CCR5-Δ32 provides HIV resistance, mutations decreasing myostatin can result in larger muscle mass, and LRP5 regulates bone mass.
Dr Mason then shifted to the topic of DNA patents. Until recently, DNA, once removed from the body, could be patented. The patenting of a DNA sequence such as the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, which are implicated in the development of breast cancer, had the potential to stymie medicine based on these gene sequences. Dr Mason likened gene patenting to "patenting the word because and claiming to own every book". The challenge to gene patenting took place on 4/15/2013 and the Supreme Court invalidated patents on BRCA1 and BRCA2 on 6/13/2013- claims on isolated DNA were rejected. The litigation finally ended in 2015, so you now have a right to look at DNA. Dr Mason quipped, "Your genome is free!"
Dr Mason moved on to the topic of the microbiome. Every individual has more than one genome- there is the human genome and there is the genome of an individual's microbiome. Dr Mason illustrated this concept with a political analogy: "In a genetic democracy, you are the minority party." Every human being plays host to three to five pounds of bacteria, and most of the genes in your body are not "yours". Dr Mason cited the work of the Human Microbiome Project, joking "You are your bacteria." One's bacterial symbionts provide about 90% of the body's serotonin and about 50% of the body's dopamine. As Dr Mason put it, "The nearest pharmacy is your gut." The human microbiome produces about 700 "drugs". Lab studies have shown that (WARNING: NYT LINK, SAVE YOUR CLICKS) gut bacteria transplanted to fat mice can slim them.
An individual "inherits" its bacteria buddies from its mother in a Maternal Microbiome Transfer- during birth, a newborn picks up some of its mother's vaginal microbiome. Later on, this major transference is supplemented during nursing. Babies delivered through a Caesarian section tend to have a higher incidence of disease later in life. Dr Mason likened the microbiome to an anti-disease "force field", then he flashed a news report of Boeing's new "force field" patent (gotta love interdisciplinary nerdery!). He also noted that exposure to cockroaches is good for infants with asthma, and that Fecal Microbiota Transplants can harness "the power of poop" to help individuals with certain gastrointestinal problems (Dr Martin Blaser's two Secret Science Club lectures also dealt with this subject). He then cited OpenBiome as the go-to place for potential stool donors, with their "give a shit" campaign.
Dr Mason had a brief digression about bacteriophobia, quoting Bertrand Russell: "To conquer fear is the beginning of wisdom." He showed the audience a couple of photos of his adorable daughter and mentioned her habit of putting toys in her mouth. When he took her to daycare, he observed the kids all putting the same toys in their mouths and passing their microbiota around. He likened it to the whole group "making out". This was the inspiration for the big "swabbing campaign" which led to the Pathomap.
The Pathomap is a "molecular view of the city", the goal of the project, which began on 7/15/2013, was to "seek out new life, new civilizations". The project has taken place over six different seasons, with 4,342 different data points in a subway system that transports 5.5 million riders daily. Samples were swabbed, annotated, and sequenced. 50% of the DNA belonged to no known organism (though the genomes of cockroaches have not been sequenced yet). Dr Mason described the subway system as a "rainforest to explore" in an interview with the NY Times. DNA from bacteria, eukaryotes, viruses, and "ambiguous" sources) was collected. A headline in The Atlantic proclaimed: "New York City Subways Are Covered in Microscopic Pizza". Despite the discovery of minute traces of anthrax, bubonic plague causing Yersinia pestis, and dysentery-causing bacteria, 88% of the bacteria on the subway were "friendlies". Out of the deleterious 12%, the most common were Enterococcus and Shigella. Despite headlines about everything "from beetles to bubonic plague" being found, Dr Mason noted that there is zero evidence that anyone is at risk from the subway bacteria. He noted that anthrax is caused by a soil bacteria and that the "anthrax DNA" that was found could belong to an unknown relative, and there is evidence that low levels of the "bad" bacteria in the subway are okay.
The greatest genetic diversity in the subway system was found in the Bronx, with Brooklyn ranking second. Dr Mason wryly noted, "Nothing soft comes from the Bronx." High diversity is a good thing, there is a lesser risk of any one organism accumulating in a dangerous concentration. Comparing the subway system's microbiome to the human microbiome, Dr Mason stated that the subway "looks like skin" with regards to the diversity of its biome. He noted the various incidence of bacteria associated with kimchi, sauerkraut, and noted that species diversity varies by area of the city. Areas of the subway affected by superstorm Sandy were characterized by bacteria not present elsewhere, including bacteria normally associated with the Antarctic. The hourly dynamics in the subway system vary in the course of a day- the periodic cleaning of the system is like a "forest fire", followed by a repopulation of the cleaned area.
On the topic of the genetic diversity of the system, Dr Mason indicated that the presence of DNA doesn't necessarily indicate that the organism it reveals the presence of is alive. Certain bacteria can produce antibiotics in order to compete with other bacteria. Among eukaryote genes, chickpea and cucumber genes were commonly found. Cockroach genomes not being sequenced, the mighty roaches of New York have yet to take their rightful place, now they are lumped in with the "unknowns". The amount of human DNA found varied from day-to-day... Dr Mason admitted that no swabbing was done on the day of the No-Pants Subway Ride. The human DNA that was found corresponds with census data- zooming in on the different areas of the Pathomap, one can predict the census results due to DNA matches. Humanity's "molecular echo" rings throughout the Pathomap.
Noting that the bacterial "map" of the subway system looked like an ad for Uber or a full-body condom, Dr Mason tackled the question, "Should I ride the subway?" He said, "It's okay, you're all healthy." He concluded that we should ride the subway.
The final section of the talk concerned future projects. The NYC subway system, with 1.7 billion riders, is the seventh busiest subway system in the world. The swabbing and mapping of subways in other cities has already begun. Another upcoming project is a Hospital Microbiome Project. An integration of molecular and technical data would result in a "smart city" in which pathogenic microbe alerts could be issued. Nanopore sequencing, measuring DNA as it passes through pores, is making genome sequencing even more rapid, which led to a discussion of the need for BIG DATA storage, with Dr Mason musing about Yottabytes of genetic data. He also mentioned the upcoming studies of the Kelley twins to determine the effects of space travel on identical twins (obligatory shout-out to the mad genii of Riddled!)
In the Q&A, some bastard in the audience asked if there was an appreciable difference between the outdoor stations, exposed as they are to UV rays and winter cold, and the sheltered underground stations. Dr Mason indicated that there was almost the same level of genetic diversity, but the outdoor stations had more plant DNA than the underground stations. Other topics addressed included probiotic deodorant sprays (the bacteria prevent the "stink producing" bacteria from proliferating, but showering washes the probiotics off). Regarding DNA sequencing and genome-based medicine, Dr Mason urged us not to run away from genetic information, but to be wary of a loss of privacy. On the "Ebola question", Dr Mason noted that Ebola is an RNA virus, and no testing for it has occurred. MRSA was found at three spots in the system. Dr Mason briefly touched on DHS pathogen detectors, using air filtration, but the feds don't typically share data. One wag, noting that Dr Mason was a charismatic, entertaining speaker, asked if he would be giving Neil Degrasse Tyson a run for his money as the great populizer of science, to which Dr Mason responded that he had met with Dr Tyson and had "exchanged microbiomes" by shaking his hand. For those of you fantasizing about hunky scientists hanging out, this isn't the first time that topic has been raised. Regarding the Gowanus, there are a lot of Archea there, talk about extremophiles!
At the end of the Q&A, Dr Mason mused about the use of bacteria to protect astronauts from radiation on long space flights, and about "microbiome synchronization" in the tight spaces astronauts would deal with. He ended by noting that the best hope for long-term human survival is space colonization. We won't be going along on to the "final frontier", we'll be travelling with trillions of our closest friends.
Once again, the Secret Science Club dished out a fantastic lecture, one that hit the "sweet spot" of imparting information, giving a look into the processes used by working scientists, a healthy dose of humor, and perhaps most important of all, a compelling local connection. Put succinctly, Dr Mason knocked it out of the park. Kudos to Dr Mason, Dorian and Margaret, and the staff of the beautiful Bell House. The ride home on the subway system was wonderful, I was able to bask in the rosy glow of knowing that I was traveling with a myriad of little buddies.
Here's a quick video featuring Dr Mason:
And, for extra measure, here's the Pathomap- be warned, though, you could spend many, many hours playing with it.
Today was another scorcher, so I decided to take shelter from the heat in the American Museum of Natural History. In the interest of full disclosure, my primary reason for heading down to the museum was the imminent closing of the Secret World Inside You exhibit. I parked in the Bronx and took the 1 train down to 79th St, sharing the subway ride down with some revelers heading to the Dominican Day parade, felicidades, mis amigos Dominicanos.
The museum was a cool respite from the scorching environment of Manhattan, and I proceeded up to the third floor for the exhibit, previewed in this video:
The basic gist of the exhibit was that 99% of the genes in your body aren't yours, they belong to the microbes which inhabit your body. While these microbes sometimes cause illness, most of them are harmless fellow travelers and some of them are necessary for proper health. Even the harmless bacteria provide some benefits, as they crowd out hostile microbes, such as the fungi which cause athlete's foot.
The exhibit was broken down into sections detailing the various biomes of the body, the introduction to the skin's biome being a nice bit of poetic language expressing scientific truth:
Your skin is the largest organ of your body. In an average adult, this protective layer covers some 20 square feet (1.8 square meters). Think of your skin as a sprawling countryside of hills and valleys, cracks and crevices, smooth slopes and rough terrain. Some parts are cool and dry, others warm and humid, and still others oily or forested with hair. Many species of bacteria, fungi, and other microbes call this landscape home.
There was a display about microbial transfer, with an amusing report of roller derby players having more similar microbiomes after the bruising contact of a match.
Another big part of the exhibit dealt with pregnancy and childbirth- in the womb, a fetus is protected from bacteria and viruses in its amniotic sac, and during natural childbirth, the baby picks up a bit of its mother's microbiome while exiting through the birth canal. Infants born by cesarean-section do not receive this beneficial microbial slathering, so swabbing C-section delivered babies with extracts from mom's birth canal may show some promise in remedying this microbial deficit.
The section of microbes' role in the health of their host was fascinating- there were placards detailing Helicobacter pylori's mixed role in human health (described in some detail in this lecture recap). Another bacterium given accolades is Lactobacillus johnsonii, which may provide hosts with lower rates of asthma and allergies which affect the lungs. Bacteroides fragilis can reduce inflammation in colitis sufferers. One particularly funny display illustrated the use of fecal transplants to aid colitis patients infected with Clostridium difficile:
The caption of the display likened the macrophage to a well-behaved dog, warding off intruders but welcoming to friends. Can you dig it?
Other sections explored other bodily biomes, such as the mouth, with a special focus on the role of acid-producing bacteria in causing tooth decay.
The exhibit featured a lot of interactive displays. One was a game called 'Build your microbiome', which simulated the development of gut bacteria through diet, stressing the importance of probiotics and vegetable matter which provides a lot of nourishment for gut bacteria. One grand interactive exhibit portrayed a woman laying on a table, surrounded by icons which, when touched, would bring up displays of the microbes inhabiting her body, from her hair to the soles of her feet.
The exhibit was really well-done, with a myriad of tiny lights to symbolize the various symbiotic microbes and a lot of buttons to push for inquisitive children. It was a charming exhibit, conveying a topic which is still a bit 'foreign' to a society raised to believe that 'germs' are bad. It was definitely worth heading out of the house in the blistering heat to attend this cool exhibit.
The first lecture by Dr Blaser that I attended concerned the human microbiome, with a focus on the role that the bacterium H. pylori plays in the gastrointestinal tract. The second lecture was a more generalized overview of the role of the microbiome on health, touching on such topics as the possible role played by antibiotic overuse/misuse in the world's growing obesity epidemic- it corresponded with the initial release of Dr Blaser's book.
Last night's lecture could be characterized to a 'greatest hits' compilation- it was a broad overview of the subject of the human microbiome and the role that antibiotics play in the relationship between us and our bacterial symbionts. Much of the talk revolved around the findings of the graduate students in Dr Blaser's lab.
Dr Blaser noted that most of a newborn's microbiome is inherited from its mother, largely through vaginal birth, but also through close contact as breast-feeding, kissing, and in the case of some cultures, pre-mastication of food by mom. Babies born through C-sections tend to have less-developed gut bacteria than those born vaginally. By the age of three, an individual's gut microbiome is similar to that of an adult of the same cultural group.
Much of the lecture was involved with discussions of the role of antibiotic use in weight gain and possibly the onset of type 2 diabetes. While most of the experiments with mice involved sub-therapeutic levels administered over time, other studies mimicked the way in which people generally use antibiotics- pulses of high antibiotic use given to combat infection. Dr Blaser likened this to giving the mice antibiotics the same way parents would give antibiotics to a child with an ear infection. The 'pulsed' use of antibiotics early in life resulted in similar outcomes as the use of sub-therapeutic levels of antibiotics.
Dr Blaser made sure to note that the development of antibiotics was a civilization-altering occurrence, and that the use of antibiotics has hugely benefited humanity. The study of the relationship between individuals and their bacterial symbionts is a relatively new field, and Dr Blaser and his team are on the cutting edge of it. Dr Blaser jokingly told an anecdote about he and his staff sending stool samples off to have genetic testing of the microbiota performed, and not knowing exactly how to interpret the results. Our internal symbionts have evolved with us over the course of millions of years, but our relationship is just beginning to be parsed out.
Dr Blaser devoted a significant portion of his lecture to the work of his colleges and students, presenting their achievements in succession with a palpable sense of pride. For a talk about germs and poop, there was a genuine sense of joy about the topic.
Dr Blaser devoted a considerable amount of time to a Q&A session- he knows that there is an intense public interest in his research and its health implications. There were a lot of questions about probiotics and ways in which to 'reboot' (perhaps re-butt) one's internal biota after a course of antibiotics. The topic of fecal transplants came up, with one wag in the audience (of whom I am jealous) referring to them as trans-poo-sions. One bastard in the audience asked if anyone had done research concerning the effect of antibiotic use on the onset of menarche, but Dr Blaser noted that lower ages for the onset of puberty predated the development of antibiotics by about a century, and should be attributed to overall improvements in nutrition.
All told, the lecture was wonderful- entertaining as well as informative. Dr Blaser has a remarkable knack for making his subject matter accessible for the layperson, something crucial when it comes to a topic as intimate as one's relationship with one's one trillion closest friends. Kudos to the good doctor, Margaret and Dorian, and the staff of Symphony Space... once again, the SSC has knocked it out of the park.
Here's a video of Dr Blaser lecturing on this topic at the American Society for Microbiology:
Crack open a beverage and soak in that Secret Science Club ambiance.
Tonight, while at work, I am logged into this month's Secret Science Club Zoom lecture featuring Muhammad H. Zaman of Boston University. While I miss the lovely people of the beautiful Bell House, I am currently basking in the rays of the setting sun behind the main building at my workplace.
This is going to be a bit of a liveblog. Dorian Devins just made a statement about the official SSC support for Black Lives Matter. I'm just going to say that racism is incompatible with science. PERIOD! Kudos to Dorian and Margaret for all they do.
Tonight's lecture is based on Dr Zaman's new book: Biography of Resistance: The Epic Battle Between People and Pathogens Dr Zaman began his talk by mentioning the role of systemic racism in the spread of illnesses. What can the history of antibiotic resistance tell us about future pandemics? Medical science took a fork in the road which led us to this place. Dr Zaman then shifted to the topic of the 1918 Flu, which was worldwide in scope, affecting such geographically separated individuals as Mustafa Kamal, Mohandas Ghandi, and T.S. Eliot all contracted the 1918 flu. Forty percent of the flu deaths occurred in India,
He then displayed the abstract of a paper co-written by Anthony Fauci concerning the role of bacterial pneumonia in influenza deaths. Patients who are intubated receive antibiotics, and antibiotic resistant secondary infections pose great danger to such patients.
Dr Zaman then discussed writing books in addition to research papers- books can broaden the conversation about scientific subjects. He wants to be able to discuss these subjects with neighbors, with his children's teachers, with his aunts and uncles. He also noted that books allow a holistic perspective of problems involving public health and policy.
Bacteria can be described as gram positive and gram negative according to how they react to a Gram stain developed by Hans Christian Gram, who studied pneumonia pathogens. Dr Zaman then noted that Louis Pasteur, while a titan of science, had stolen
Robert Koch formulated Koch's postulates of disease, but he also forced East Africans to take a medicine for sleeping sickness which turned out to be extremely dangerous. Dr Zaman stressed that even great scientists are humans with all of those flaws.
Dr Zaman noted that viruses can not only cause disease, but can be used to cure disease. British virologist Frederick William Twort discovered bacteriophages, viruses which harm bacteria. This research became popular with Stalin, so phage therapy was seen as 'Soviet', so the development of antibiotics was favored. Sulfa drugs were used to teat infections, but bacteria started to become less effective. Then Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin. Mary Barber was a British doctor who noted that penicillin resistance was evolving in bacteria, so new antibiotics had to be developed, such as methicillin.
There are so many different bacteria strains which produce antibiotics to provide an adaptive advantage. Bacteria have been 'waging war' since time immemorial. Dr Hazel Barton, a cave microbiologist, has been studying microbes from deep portions of the Lechuguilla cave in New Mexico. Bacteria have been competing, humans just 'put their thumbs on the scale'.
In another case, an isolated Yanomami group in Venezuela had been contacted by soldiers, and despite their isolation, fecal samples and non-invasive skin samples showed that they had resistant microbes.
There's a need to discuss overuse of antibiotics beyond talking of bad patients and bad doctors. One major factor in common outbreaks is global conflicts. In the first Gulf War, many US soldiers contracted a new, resistant bacterium, Acinetobacter baumannii. The bacterium still infects Iraqis. War kills doctors, destroys infrastructure, and contaminates soil, fostering bacterial resistance development. Similar outbreaks developed in Kabul, and Yemen is a potential source for a novel 'superbug'.
Large-scale agriculture also fosters antibiotic resistance. Citrus growers use antibiotics to affect fruit shape and color. Farm animals are given antibiotics, which get into milk and meat. Indiscriminate antibiotic use pushed by ill trained druggists is common throughout the world.
Dr Zaman posed a thought experiment: if you are a pharmaceutical executive, do you develop antibiotics which are taken for a few days or pharmaceuticals which need to be taken every day for a patient's life? Also if you develop a novel antibiotic, should it be kept 'in reserve'?
There's a 2% success rate for new antibiotics working, and most 'new' antibiotics are merely reworking old antibiotics. For gram positive bacteria, a new antibiotic hasn't been developed for thirty years, fifty years for gram negative bacteria.
Our system doesn't work because the private sector cannot sufficiently provide a public good.
The story of antibiotic resistance is a story of bad decisions, people doing things they shouldn't have done. The problem is solvable, though, if different sectors combine- public, business. People with chronic conditions are the ones most affected by resistant infections, in the United States, African-Americans are the most vulnerable. The barriers which prevent people from having decent lives must come down if we want a society in which everyone is healthy.
The lecture has now shifted into the Q&A phase. One question regarded the pace of resistance development in medicine vis-a-vis nature. The selective pressures in a lab are just more rapid in pace, so resistance evolves more quickly. Another question involved overuse of alcohol-based wipes in the current pandemic- we don't know the long-term impact because there are no good studies. They are probably less conducive to resistance than antibiotics, but they do kill beneficial bacteria as well. There could be serious concerns. What is the best thing we can do as patients to counter antibiotic resistance? Perhaps it involves forgoing immediate relief for long-term benefits. As patients and consumers, we should also push back on excessive antibiotic use in farm animals, particularly use to foster growth, rather than to treat infection. Can bacteria lose resistance to old antibiotics? Resistance is a cost to bacteria, they have to carry that gene. Antibiotics which are ineffective here in the US can still be effective in countries which have tighter controls on their use. Is humanity destined to lose the battle with bacterial resistance? Dr Zaman is an optimist. People are suffering, and socioeconomically disadvantaged people suffer the most, and our humanity is suffering. Some bastard in the audience asked: Would it be possible to use 'selective pressure' to foster bacteria which are less deleterious to human hosts? If that is done, everybody must buy in. Such bacteria would be more prone to antibiotic resistance, which is not hard to evolve. Bacteria have been around for four billion years, they are hard to 'outsmart' evolutionarily. Another question regarded the best way to combat outbreaks. Dr Zaman gave his top three: stop conflicts, which drive suffering, make sure that proper information is transmitted, and involve everyone in health decisions, not just medical professionals.
I'm going to hit 'publish' now, though the Q&A is still ongoing. Please, put your name on the Secret Science Club mailing list, because there is another lecture taking place next week.
Kudos to Dr Zaman, Dorian and Margaret for another great Secret Science Club presentation.
UPDATE: In response to a young listener, Dr Zaman stressed that the old model of a 'war on bacteria' has been discounted, and that beneficial bacteria play an important role in human health. Another good question involved a global outbreak of resistant C. difficile- while numbers have been going up, the transmission isn't as quick as a viral infection. Another question involved the danger of knocking out beneficial bacteria, which Dr Zaman noted can impact our immune systems, which are under constant pressure, upsetting the balance is bad. The follow up involved ways to restore bacterial symbionts after a course of antibiotics. Dr Zaman opined that it depends on what antibiotics are involved, but suggesting consulting a nutritionist for advice.
SECOND UPDATE: There was a question about how antibiotic resistance arises, and Dr Zaman indicated that bacteria have multiple strategies... they can evolve thicker walls, they can develop more effective efflux pumps to remove toxins, they can move genetic material to different areas to thwart antibiotics. He reiterated that bacteria have been around for billions of years, and have many survival strategems.
THIRD UPDATE: There was a question about reviving phage therapy making a comeback. Broad clinical trials are needed. We need to know how phages affect bacteria. Studies of viral mutations must be done to ensure safety. Phage therapy should supplement antibiotic and vaccine use to create a broad spectrum of therapeutic techniques.
The Big Bad Bald Bastard is a character played by Monsieur _______ of the City of Y______. The role of the Bastard is a handy one to play on subways, walking the streets, and in dive-bars, when being a nerdy, bookish sort is not to one's advantage.
